a. Behaviorism b. The Social Cognitive Theory is perhaps the most comprehensive and complex learning theories in the field of psychology. Children observe the people around them behaving in various ways. For example, social cognitive theory addresses how characteristics about the socialization agents (e.g., salience, prevalence, functional value) and observer attributes (e.g., cognitive capabilities, expectations, preferences) guide the extent that children pay attention to particular models. Self-efficacy theory explicitly focuses on how individuals and communities can be empowered with a sense of agency that will facilitate goal attainment. This theory of triadic reciprocal determinism therefore further reinforces the idea that if the effects of the environment are consistent (i.e., an even playing field for all), then self-efficacy beliefs will take on an even greater role in determining human behavior, and ultimately shaping outcomes. They saw social cognitive theory as focusing primarily on competence beliefs and paying little attention to values. There are various different approaches in contemporary psychology. In fact, self-efficacy theory remained the most crucial element in his theoretical model of human functioning. ; Carl Rogers (1946) publishes Significant aspects of client-centered therapy (also called person centered therapy). Behavior change would necessitate bringing outcome and efficacy expectations in alignment with one another. Thus, a change in efficacy expectations through vicarious experience may be effected by encouraging an individual to believe something akin to the following: “if she can do it, so can I”. Indeed, social media may serve as a source of modeling, verbal persuasion, feedback, and encouragement, as well as may contribute to address other aspects of SCT. The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which factor into whether behavioral action will occur. The core features of agency enable people to play a part in their self-development, adaptation, and self-renewal with changing times. Human adaptation and change are rooted in social systems. Rather, self-efficacy theory would suggest that individuals who are currently struggling may not have been provided with opportunities to obtain mastery experiences or modeling necessary to develop high levels of self-efficacy. E. Katz, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001 6 Knowledge Gap. John Watson was the founder of behaviorist theory. Human agency is characterized by a number of core features that operate through phenomenal and functional consciousness. The theory views people as active agents who both influence and are influenced by their environment. New experiences can either be assimilated (using already held beliefs to interpret the event) or accommodated (which involves changing existing beliefs in response to the event.) In addition, the two theories complement one another by each addressing certain processes in more depth than the other theory does. The theory heavily focuses on processes of learning and in doing so disregards biological and hormonal predispositions that may influence behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations. Bandura (1986, 1997) postulated that motivation is affected by self-incentives (similar to intrinsic value in expectancy-value theory), perceived disincentives (similar to cost in expectancy-value theory), personal standards (similar to attainment value in expectancy-value theory), and valuation of the activity (similar to utility value in expectancy-value theory). They viewed the differences between expectancy-value theory and social cognitive theory as “subtle” matters of emphasis. Contextual Perspectives: A Broad Approach to Development. ... and thus more cognitive effort, than interacting with a computer (Rilling, Sanfey, Aronson, Nystrom, & Cohen, 2004‏). The ways in which an organization functions and develops is affected to a significant extent by social cognitive theory. He believed that all societies develop and progress through the following … While expectancies also derive from previous experience, expectancies focus on the value that is placed on the outcome and are subjective to the individual. Social support, on the other hand, may be categorized into four types of supportive behaviors [5]: (1) emotional support, involving the provision of empathy, love, trust, and caring; (2) instrumental support, involving the provision of aid, resources, and services that directly assist a person in need; (3) informational support, meaning the provision of advice, suggestions, and information that a person can use to address problems; and (4) appraisal support or the provision of information that is useful for self-evaluation purposes (e.g., constructive feedback) [5]. 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